Introduction

Nausea is a subjective phenomenon of an unpleasant, wavelike sensation experienced in the back of the throat and/or the epigastrium that may culminate in vomiting (emesis). Vomiting is the forceful expulsion of the contents of the stomach, duodenum, or jejunum through the oral cavity. Retching is gastric and esophageal movements of vomiting without expulsion of vomitus and is also referred to as dry heaves.

Classifications

Various classifications of N&V have been used,[1,6] including acute, delayed, late or persistent, chronic, anticipatory, breakthrough, or refractory, as well as distinctions related to type of treatment (e.g., chemotherapy induced or radiation induced) and clinical course of disease (e.g., advanced or terminal disease).[7,8] Despite this variety, the most commonly described types of N&V are acute, delayed, and anticipatory chemotherapy-induced N&V and chronic N&V in advanced cancer patients. Although there are no standard definitions, the following are commonly used to classify the different types.

• Acute N&V: N&V experienced during the first 24-hour period after chemotherapy administration is considered acute N&V.[1]
• Delayed (or late) N&V: N&V that occurs more than 24 hours after chemotherapy administration is considered delayed, or late, N&V. Delayed N&V is associated withcisplatin, cyclophosphamide, and other drugs (e.g., doxorubicin and ifosfamide) given at high doses or on 2 or more consecutive days.
• Anticipatory nausea and vomiting (ANV): ANV is nausea and/or vomiting that occurs prior to the beginning of a new cycle of chemotherapy in response to conditioned stimuli such as the smells, sights, and sounds of the treatment room. ANV is a classically conditioned response that typically occurs after three or four prior chemotherapy treatments, following which the person experienced acute or delayed N&V.
• Chronic N&V in advanced cancer patients: Chronic N&V in the advanced cancer patient is N&V associated with a variety of potential etiologies. A definitive understanding of cause is neither well known nor well researched, but potential causal factors include gastrointestinal, cranial, metabolic, drug-induced (e.g., morphine), cytotoxic chemotherapy, and radiation-induced mechanisms.[9]

References

1. Wickham R: Nausea and vomiting. In: Yarbo CH, Frogge MH, Goodman M, eds.: Cancer Symptom Management. 2nd ed. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 1999, pp 228-263.
2. Coates A, Abraham S, Kaye SB, et al.: On the receiving end–patient perception of the side-effects of cancer chemotherapy. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 19 (2): 203-8, 1983. [PubMed]
3. Craig JB, Powell BL: The management of nausea and vomiting in clinical oncology. Am J Med Sci 293 (1): 34-44, 1987. [PubMed]
4. Passik SD, Kirsh KL, Rosenfeld B, et al.: The changeable nature of patients’ fears regarding chemotherapy: implications for palliative care. J Pain Symptom Manage 21 (2): 113-20, 2001. [PubMed]
5. Grunberg SM, Deuson RR, Mavros P, et al.: Incidence of chemotherapy-induced nausea and emesis after modern antiemetics. Cancer 100 (10): 2261-8, 2004. [PubMed]
6. Pisters KM, Kris MG: Treatment-related nausea and vomiting. In: Berger A, Portenoy RK, Weissman DE, eds.: Principles and Practice of Supportive Oncology. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1998, pp 165-199.
7. Fallon BG: Nausea and vomiting unrelated to cancer treatment. In: Berger A, Portenoy RK, Weissman DE, eds.: Principles and Practice of Supportive Oncology. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1998, pp 179-189.
8. Allan SG: Nausea and vomiting. In: Doyle D, Hanks GW, MacDonald N, eds.: Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998, pp 282-290.
9. Schwartzberg L: Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: state of the art in 2006. J Support Oncol 4 (2 Suppl 1): 3-8, 2006. [PubMed]
10. National Cancer Institute.: Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (CTCAE), Version 4.0. Bethesda, Md: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, 2010. Available online. Last accessed March 28, 2013.

References

1. Pisters KM, Kris MG: Treatment-related nausea and vomiting. In: Berger A, Portenoy RK, Weissman DE, eds.: Principles and Practice of Supportive Oncology. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1998, pp 165-199.
2. Berger AM, Clark-Snow RA: Nausea and vomiting. In: DeVita VT Jr, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, eds.: Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1997, 2705-2712.
3. Andrews PL, Hawthorn J: The neurophysiology of vomiting. Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol 2 (1): 141-68, 1988. [PubMed]
4. Miller AD, Leslie RA: The area postrema and vomiting. Front Neuroendocrinol 15 (4): 301-20, 1994. [PubMed]

References

1. Sullivan JR, Leyden MJ, Bell R: Decreased cisplatin-induced nausea and vomiting with chronic alcohol ingestion. N Engl J Med 309 (13): 796, 1983. [PubMed]
2. Tonato M, Roila F, Del Favero A: Methodology of antiemetic trials: a review. Ann Oncol 2 (2): 107-14, 1991. [PubMed]
3. Roila F, Tonato M, Basurto C, et al.: Antiemetic activity of high doses of metoclopramide combined with methylprednisolone versus metoclopramide alone in cisplatin-treated cancer patients: a randomized double-blind trial of the Italian Oncology Group for Clinical Research. J Clin Oncol 5 (1): 141-9, 1987. [PubMed]
4. Cassileth BR, Lusk EJ, Bodenheimer BJ, et al.: Chemotherapeutic toxicity–the relationship between patients’ pretreatment expectations and posttreatment results. Am J Clin Oncol 8 (5): 419-25, 1985. [PubMed]
5. Andrykowski MA, Gregg ME: The role of psychological variables in post-chemotherapy nausea: anxiety and expectation. Psychosom Med 54 (1): 48-58, 1992 Jan-Feb. [PubMed]
6. Jacobsen PB, Andrykowski MA, Redd WH, et al.: Nonpharmacologic factors in the development of posttreatment nausea with adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer. Cancer 61 (2): 379-85, 1988. [PubMed]
7. Haut MW, Beckwith BE, Laurie JA, et al.: Postchemotherapy nausea and vomiting in cancer patients receiving outpatient chemotherapy. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology 9(1): 117-130, 1991.
8. Roscoe JA, Hickok JT, Morrow GR: Patient expectations as predictor of chemotherapy-induced nausea. Ann Behav Med 22 (2): 121-6, 2000 Spring. [PubMed]
9. Hickok JT, Roscoe JA, Morrow GR: The role of patients’ expectations in the development of anticipatory nausea related to chemotherapy for cancer. J Pain Symptom Manage 22 (4): 843-50, 2001. [PubMed]
10. Roscoe JA, Bushunow P, Morrow GR, et al.: Patient expectation is a strong predictor of severe nausea after chemotherapy: a University of Rochester Community Clinical Oncology Program study of patients with breast carcinoma. Cancer 101 (11): 2701-8, 2004. [PubMed]
11. Higgins SC, Montgomery GH, Bovbjerg DH: Distress before chemotherapy predicts delayed but not acute nausea. Support Care Cancer 15 (2): 171-7, 2007. [PubMed]
12. Passik SD, Kirsh KL, Rosenfeld B, et al.: The changeable nature of patients’ fears regarding chemotherapy: implications for palliative care. J Pain Symptom Manage 21 (2): 113-20, 2001. [PubMed]

Prevalence

The prevalence of anticipatory nausea and vomiting (emesis) (ANV) has varied, owing to changing definitions and assessment methods.[1] However, anticipatory nausea appears to occur in approximately 29% of patients receiving chemotherapy (about one of three patients), while anticipatory vomiting appears to occur in 11% of patients (about one of ten patients).[2] With the introduction of new pharmacologic agents (5-HT₃ receptor antagonists), it was anticipated that the prevalence of ANV might decline; however, studies have shown mixed results. One study found a lower incidence of ANV,[3] and three studies found comparable incidence rates.[2,4,5] It appears that the 5-HT₃ agents reduce postchemotherapy vomiting but not postchemotherapy nausea,[2,5] and the resulting impact on ANV is unclear.

Classical Conditioning

Although other theoretical mechanisms have been proposed,[6] ANV appears to be best explained by classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning).[7] In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., smells of the chemotherapy environment) elicits a conditioned response (e.g., ANV) after a number of prior pairings or learning trials. In cancer chemotherapy, the first few chemotherapy infusions are the learning trials. The chemotherapy drugs are the unconditioned stimuli that elicit postchemotherapy nausea and vomiting (N&V) (in some patients). The drugs are paired with a variety of other neutral, environmental stimuli (e.g., smells of the setting, oncology nurse, chemotherapy room). These previously neutral stimuli then become conditioned stimuli and elicit ANV in future chemotherapy cycles. ANV is not an indication of psychopathology but is rather a learned response that, in other life situations (e.g., food poisoning), results in adaptive avoidance. A variety of correlational studies provide empirical support for classical conditioning. For example, the prevalence of ANV prior to any chemotherapy is very rare, and few patients ever experience ANV without prior postchemotherapy nausea.[8] Also, most studies have found (1) a higher probability of ANV with increasing numbers of chemotherapy infusions and (2) the intensity of ANV increasing as patients get closer to the actual time of their infusion.[9] In one experimental study, it was shown that a novel beverage could become a conditioned stimulus to nausea when paired with several chemotherapy treatments.[10]

Variables Correlated with ANV

Many variables have been investigated as potential factors that correlate with the incidence of ANV in hopes of developing a list of risk factors. There is currently no agreement on which factors predict ANV. A patient with fewer than three of the first eight characteristics listed below, however, is unlikely to develop ANV, and screening following the first chemotherapy infusion could identify those patients at increased risk.[11]

Variables Found to Correlate With ANV

1. Age younger than 50 years.
2. N&V after last chemotherapy session.
3. Posttreatment nausea described as moderate, severe, or intolerable.
4. Posttreatment vomiting described as moderate, severe, or intolerable.
5. Feeling warm or hot all over after last chemotherapy session.
6. Susceptibility to motion sickness.
7. Sweating after last chemotherapy session.
8. Generalized weakness after last chemotherapy session.
9. Female gender.
10. High-state anxiety (anxiety reactive to specific situations).[12,13]
11. Greater reactivity of the autonomic nervous system and slower reaction time.[14]
12. Patient expectations of chemotherapy-related nausea before beginning treatment.[15,16]
13. Percentage of infusions of chemotherapy followed by nausea.[17]
14. Postchemotherapy dizziness.
15. Lightheadedness.
16. Longer latency of onset of posttreatment N&V.[18]
17. Emetogenic potential of various chemotherapeutic agents. Patients receiving drugs with a moderate to severe potential for posttreatment N&V are more likely to develop ANV.[12]
18. Morning sickness during pregnancy.

Treatment of ANV

Antiemetic drugs do not seem to control ANV once it has developed;[2] however, a variety of behavioral interventions have been investigated.[19] These include progressive muscle relaxation with guided imagery,[20] hypnosis,[21] systematic desensitization,[22] electromyography and thermal biofeedback,[23] and distraction via the use of video games.[24,25] Progressive muscle relaxation with guided imagery, hypnosis, and systematic desensitization has been studied the most and is the recommended treatment. Referral to a psychologist or other mental health professional with specific training and experience in working with cancer patients is recommended when ANV is identified. The earlier ANV is identified, the more likely treatment will be effective; thus, early screening and referral are essential. In addition, physicians and nurses underestimate the incidence of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting.[26][Level of evidence: II]

References

1. Andrykowski MA: Defining anticipatory nausea and vomiting: differences among cancer chemotherapy patients who report pretreatment nausea. J Behav Med 11 (1): 59-69, 1988. [PubMed]
2. Morrow GR, Roscoe JA, Kirshner JJ, et al.: Anticipatory nausea and vomiting in the era of 5-HT3 antiemetics. Support Care Cancer 6 (3): 244-7, 1998. [PubMed]
3. Aapro MS, Kirchner V, Terrey JP: The incidence of anticipatory nausea and vomiting after repeat cycle chemotherapy: the effect of granisetron. Br J Cancer 69 (5): 957-60, 1994. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
4. Fernández-Marcos A, Martín M, Sanchez JJ, et al.: Acute and anticipatory emesis in breast cancer patients. Support Care Cancer 4 (5): 370-7, 1996. [PubMed]
5. Roscoe JA, Morrow GR, Hickok JT, et al.: Nausea and vomiting remain a significant clinical problem: trends over time in controlling chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting in 1413 patients treated in community clinical practices. J Pain Symptom Manage 20 (2): 113-21, 2000. [PubMed]
6. Reesal RT, Bajramovic H, Mai F: Anticipatory nausea and vomiting: a form of chemotherapy phobia? Can J Psychiatry 35 (1): 80-2, 1990. [PubMed]
7. Stockhorst U, Klosterhalfen S, Steingruber HJ: Conditioned nausea and further side-effects in cancer chemotherapy: a review. Journal of Psychophysiology 12 (suppl 1): 14-33, 1998.
8. Morrow GR, Rosenthal SN: Models, mechanisms and management of anticipatory nausea and emesis. Oncology 53 (Suppl 1): 4-7, 1996. [PubMed]
9. Montgomery GH, Bovbjerg DH: The development of anticipatory nausea in patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer. Physiol Behav 61 (5): 737-41, 1997. [PubMed]
10. Bovbjerg DH, Redd WH, Jacobsen PB, et al.: An experimental analysis of classically conditioned nausea during cancer chemotherapy. Psychosom Med 54 (6): 623-37, 1992 Nov-Dec. [PubMed]
11. Morrow GR, Roscoe JA, Hickok JT: Nausea and vomiting. In: Holland JC, Breitbart W, Jacobsen PB, et al., eds.: Psycho-oncology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998, pp 476-484.
12. Andrykowski MA, Redd WH, Hatfield AK: Development of anticipatory nausea: a prospective analysis. J Consult Clin Psychol 53 (4): 447-54, 1985. [PubMed]
13. Roscoe JA, Morrow GR, Hickok JT, et al.: Biobehavioral factors in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network 2 (5): 501-8, 2004. [PubMed]
14. Kvale G, Psychol C, Hugdahl K: Cardiovascular conditioning and anticipatory nausea and vomiting in cancer patients. Behav Med 20 (2): 78-83, 1994 Summer. [PubMed]
15. Montgomery GH, Tomoyasu N, Bovbjerg DH, et al.: Patients’ pretreatment expectations of chemotherapy-related nausea are an independent predictor of anticipatory nausea. Ann Behav Med 20 (2): 104-9, 1998 Spring. [PubMed]
16. Shelke AR, Roscoe JA, Morrow GR, et al.: Effect of a nausea expectancy manipulation on chemotherapy-induced nausea: a university of Rochester cancer center community clinical oncology program study. J Pain Symptom Manage 35 (4): 381-7, 2008. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
17. Tomoyasu N, Bovbjerg DH, Jacobsen PB: Conditioned reactions to cancer chemotherapy: percent reinforcement predicts anticipatory nausea. Physiol Behav 59 (2): 273-6, 1996. [PubMed]
18. Chin SB, Kucuk O, Peterson R, et al.: Variables contributing to anticipatory nausea and vomiting in cancer chemotherapy. Am J Clin Oncol 15 (3): 262-7, 1992. [PubMed]
19. Carey MP, Burish TG: Etiology and treatment of the psychological side effects associated with cancer chemotherapy: a critical review and discussion. Psychol Bull 104 (3): 307-25, 1988. [PubMed]
20. Lyles JN, Burish TG, Krozely MG, et al.: Efficacy of relaxation training and guided imagery in reducing the aversiveness of cancer chemotherapy. J Consult Clin Psychol 50 (4): 509-24, 1982. [PubMed]
21. Redd WH, Andresen GV, Minagawa RY: Hypnotic control of anticipatory emesis in patients receiving cancer chemotherapy. J Consult Clin Psychol 50 (1): 14-9, 1982. [PubMed]
22. Morrow GR, Morrell C: Behavioral treatment for the anticipatory nausea and vomiting induced by cancer chemotherapy. N Engl J Med 307 (24): 1476-80, 1982. [PubMed]
23. Burish TG, Shartner CD, Lyles JN: Effectiveness of multiple muscle-site EMG biofeedback and relaxation training in reducing the aversiveness of cancer chemotherapy. Biofeedback Self Regul 6 (4): 523-35, 1981. [PubMed]
24. Kolko DJ, Rickard-Figueroa JL: Effects of video games on the adverse corollaries of chemotherapy in pediatric oncology patients: a single-case analysis. J Consult Clin Psychol 53 (2): 223-8, 1985. [PubMed]
25. Vasterling J, Jenkins RA, Tope DM, et al.: Cognitive distraction and relaxation training for the control of side effects due to cancer chemotherapy. J Behav Med 16 (1): 65-80, 1993. [PubMed]
26. Grunberg SM, Deuson RR, Mavros P, et al.: Incidence of chemotherapy-induced nausea and emesis after modern antiemetics. Cancer 100 (10): 2261-8, 2004. [PubMed]

Acute Nausea and Vomiting (Emesis) (N&V)

• Incidence:

  –

  The incidence of acute and delayed N&V was investigated in highly and moderately emetogenic chemotherapy treatment regimens. Patients were recruited from 14 oncology practices in six countries. Overall, more than 35% of patients experienced acute nausea, and 13% experienced acute emesis. In patients receiving highly emetogenic chemotherapy, 60% experienced delayed nausea, and 50% experienced delayed emesis. In patients receiving moderately emetogenic chemotherapy, 52% experienced delayed nausea, and 28% experienced delayed emesis.[1] Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) was a substantial problem for patients receiving moderately emetogenic chemotherapy in ten community oncology clinics.[2] Thirty-six percent of patients developed acute CINV, and 59% developed delayed CINV.

• Etiologies:

  –

  Chemotherapy is the most common treatment-related cause of N&V. The incidence and severity of acute emesis in persons receiving chemotherapy varies according to many factors, including the particular drug, dose, schedule of administration, route, and individual patient variables. In most cancer patients, these symptoms can be prevented or controlled.

• Risk factors for acute emesis include:[3]

  –

  Poor control with prior chemotherapy.

  –

  Female gender.

  –

  Younger age.

• Emetic classifications: The American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) has developed a rating system for chemotherapeutic agents and their respective risk of acute and delayed emesis.[3]

  –

  High risk: Emesis that has been documented to occur in more than 90% of patients:

  • Cisplatin (Platinol).
  • Mechlorethamine (Mustargen).
  • Streptozotocin (Zanosar).
  • Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan), 1,500 mg/m² or more.
  • Carmustine (BiCNU).
  • Dacarbazine (DTIC-Dome).
  • Dactinomycin.

   

  –

  Moderate risk: Emesis that has been documented to occur in 30% to 90% of patients:

  • Carboplatin (Paraplatin).
  • Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan), less than 1,500 mg/m².
  • Daunorubicin (DaunoXome).
  • Doxorubicin (Adriamycin).
  • Epirubicin (Pharmorubicin).
  • Idarubicin (Idamycin).
  • Oxaliplatin (Eloxatin).
  • Cytarabine (Cytosar), more than 1 g/m².
  • Ifosfamide (Ifex).
  • Irinotecan (Camptosar).

   

  –

  Low risk: Emesis that has been documented to occur in 10% to 30% of patients:

  • Mitoxantrone (Novantrone).
  • Paclitaxel (Taxol).
  • Docetaxel (Taxotere).
  • Mitomycin (Mutamycin).
  • Topotecan (Hycamtin).
  • Gemcitabine (Gemzar).
  • Etoposide (Vepesid).
  • Pemetrexed (Alimta).
  • Methotrexate (Rheumatrex).
  • Cytarabine (Cytosar), less than 1,000 mg/m².
  • Fluorouracil (Efudex).
  • Bortezomib (Velcade).
  • Cetuximab (Erbitux).
  • Trastuzumab (Herceptin).

   

  –

  Minimal risk: Emesis that has been documented to occur in fewer than 10% of patients:

  • Vinorelbine (Navelbine).
  • Bevacizumab (Avastin).
  • Rituximab (Rituxan).
  • Bleomycin (Blenoxane).
  • Vinblastine (Velban).
  • Vincristine (Oncovin).
  • Busulphan (Myleran).
  • Fludarabine (Fludara).
  • 2-Chlorodeoxyadenosine (Leustatin).

   

In addition to emetogenic potential, the dose and schedule used are also extremely important factors. For example, a drug with a low emetogenic potential given in high doses may cause a dramatic increase in the potential to induce N&V. Standard doses of cytarabine rarely produce N&V, but these are often seen with high doses of this drug. Another factor to consider is the use of drug combinations. Because most patients receive combination chemotherapy, the emetogenic potential of all of the drugs combined and individual drug doses needs to be considered.

Delayed N&V

Delayed (or late) N&V occurs more than 24 hours after chemotherapy administration. Delayed N&V is associated with cisplatin, cyclophosphamide, and other drugs (e.g., doxorubicin andifosfamide) given at high doses or given on 2 or more consecutive days.

• Etiologies:

  –

  Patients who experience acute emesis with chemotherapy are significantly more likely to have delayed emesis.

• Risk factors:

  –

  All predicative characteristics for acute emesis should be considered risk factors for delayed emesis.

• Emetic classifications:

  –

  Refer to the Acute Nausea and Vomiting (Emesis) (N&V) section of this summary for more information.

References

1. Grunberg SM, Deuson RR, Mavros P, et al.: Incidence of chemotherapy-induced nausea and emesis after modern antiemetics. Cancer 100 (10): 2261-8, 2004. [PubMed]
2. Cohen L, de Moor CA, Eisenberg P, et al.: Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: incidence and impact on patient quality of life at community oncology settings. Support Care Cancer 15 (5): 497-503, 2007. [PubMed]
3. Kris MG, Hesketh PJ, Somerfield MR, et al.: American Society of Clinical Oncology guideline for antiemetics in oncology: update 2006. J Clin Oncol 24 (18): 2932-47, 2006. [PubMed]

Phenothiazines

Phenothiazines act on dopaminergic receptors at the CTZ, possibly at other central nervous system (CNS) centers, and peripherally. With the exception of thioridazine, many phenothiazines possess antiemetic activity, including chlorpromazine given in the 10- to 50-mg dose range orally, IM, intravenously (IV), and rectally (pediatric dose for patients >12 years: 10 mg every 6–8 hours; for patients <12 years: 5 mg every 6–8 hours); thiethylperazine given in the 5- to 10-mg dose range orally, IM, and IV; and perphenazine. The primary consideration in selecting among phenothiazines are differences in their adverse effect profiles, which substantially correlate with their structural classes. Generally, aliphatic phenothiazines (e.g., chlorpromazine, methotrimeprazine) produce sedation and anticholinergic effects, while piperazines (e.g.,prochlorperazine, thiethylperazine, perphenazine, fluphenazine) are associated with less sedation but greater incidence of extrapyramidal reactions (EPRs).

Butyrophenones

Dopamine 2 Antagonists

5-HT₃ Receptor Antagonists

Four serotonin receptor antagonists—ondansetron, granisetron, dolasetron, and palonosetron—are available in the United States. Tropisetron, while not approved by the FDA, is available internationally. Agents in this class are thought to prevent N&V by preventing serotonin, which is released from enterochromaffin cells in the gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, from initiating afferent transmission to the CNS via vagal and spinal sympathetic nerves.[17] The 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists may also block serotonin stimulation at the CTZ and other CNS structures.

Substance P Antagonists (NK-1 Receptor Antagonists)

The initial clinical studies using the NK-1 receptor antagonists [52–54][Level of evidence: I][55] demonstrated that the addition of an NK-1 receptor antagonist (CP-122,721, CJ-11,794, MK-0869 [aprepitant]) to a 5-HT₃ receptor antagonist plus dexamethasone prior to cisplatin chemotherapy improved the control of acute emesis compared with a 5-HT₃ receptor antagonist plus dexamethasone and improved the control of delayed emesis compared with placebo. In addition, as a single agent, aprepitant (MK-0869) had an effect similar to that of ondansetron on cisplatin-induced acute emesis but was superior in the control of delayed emesis. Subsequent studies [56,57][Level of evidence: I] showed that the combination of aprepitant and dexamethasone was similar to a 5-HT₃ receptor antagonist plus dexamethasone in controlling acute emesis but was inferior in controlling acute emesis compared with triple therapy (aprepitant, 5-HT₃ receptor antagonist, and dexamethasone). These studies also confirmed the improvement of delayed emesis with the use of aprepitant compared with placebo. Two studies [31,58][Level of evidence: I] have also shown an improvement in cisplatin-induced delayed emesis with the combination of aprepitant and dexamethasone compared with dexamethasone alone, with the improvement maintained over repeat cycles of cisplatin chemotherapy.

In two randomized, double-blind, parallel, multicenter, controlled studies (520 patients in each study), patients received cisplatin (≥70 mg/m²) and were randomly assigned to receive either standard therapy with a 5-HT₃ receptor antagonist (ondansetron) and dexamethasoneprechemotherapy and dexamethasone postchemotherapy (days 2–4) or standard therapy plusaprepitant prechemotherapy and on days 2 and 3 postchemotherapy.[30,59][Level of evidence: I] The CR (no emesis, no rescue) of the aprepitant group in both studies was significantly higher in both the acute period (83%–89%) and the delayed period (68%–75%), compared with the CR of the standard therapy group in the acute period (68%–78%) and delayed period (47%–56%). Nausea was improved in the aprepitant group for some, but not all of the various specific measures of nausea.[30] The studies discussed above formed the basis for the approval of aprepitant by the FDA in March 2003. In combination with other antiemetics, aprepitant is indicated for the prevention of acute and delayed N&V associated with initial and repeat courses of highly emetogenic cancer chemotherapy, including high-dose cisplatin. An additional study confirmed the efficacy of aprepitant in the delayed period, when it was compared with ondansetron.[60][Level of evidence: I]

All of the initial studies using aprepitant were conducted in patients receiving highly emetogenic chemotherapy such as cisplatin-based chemotherapy regimens. Subsequently, one group [61][Level of evidence: I] presented a study on the use of aprepitant in 862 breast cancer patients receiving moderately emetogenic chemotherapy (e.g., cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin). Two regimens were compared. Because the chemotherapy was moderately emetogenic, steroids were omitted from both arms, as illustrated in Table 2.

There was a significant improvement in CR (no emesis, no rescue) in the 24 hours after chemotherapy in the patients receiving aprepitant; however, there was no significant improvement in CR on days 2 to 5 in the postchemotherapy period when aprepitant alone was compared withondansetron alone. The overall (days 1–5) CR was significantly improved for the aprepitant-containing regimen, most likely because of the improvement in the first 24 hours. The control of nausea in moderately emetogenic chemotherapy was not improved with the use of aprepitant without steroids on days 2 and 3 postchemotherapy. These results were consistent for multiple cycles of chemotherapy.[62] The role of aprepitant in moderately emetogenic chemotherapy remains undetermined. One open-label study demonstrated that in the 5 days postchemotherapy, aprepitant in combination with palonosetron and dexamethasone is safe and highly effective in preventing CINV in patients receiving moderately emetogenic chemotherapy.[63][Level of evidence: II] Another study reported that aprepitant combined with ondansetron and dexamethasone provided superior efficacy in the prevention of acute and delayed CINV in a broad range of patients receiving moderately emetogenic chemotherapy (both anthracycline-cyclophosphamide regimens and nonanthracycline-cyclophosphamide regimens).[64] It is not known whether aprepitant is necessary in all moderately emetogenic regimens.

A randomized phase III trial evaluated the use of aprepitant in combination with a 5-HT₃ receptor antagonist and dexamethasone in patients with germ cell tumors who were receiving 5-daycisplatin combination chemotherapy.[65] There was a significant reduction in the amount of emesis and use of rescue medications with the use of aprepitant. This study suggests that aprepitant may be useful in the prevention of CINV in multiday chemotherapy regimens.

Fosaprepitant dimeglumine, a water-soluble, phosphorylated analog of aprepitant, is rapidly converted to aprepitant after IV administration.[66] Fosaprepitant (115 mg) was approved by the FDA as an alternative to the 125-mg oral aprepitant dose on day 1 of a 3-day regimen. As demonstrated in a randomized, double-blind study of patients receiving cisplatin chemotherapy, single-dose IV fosaprepitant (150 mg) given with ondansetron and dexamethasone was noninferior to the standard 3-day dosing of oral aprepitant in preventing CINV.[67]

Corticosteroids

Steroids are sometimes used as single agents against mildly to moderately emetogenic chemotherapy but are more often used in antiemetic drug combinations.[68][Level of evidence: II];[69,70][Level of evidence: I] Their antiemetic mechanism of action is not fully understood, but they may affect prostaglandin activity in the brain. Clinically, steroids quantitatively decrease or eliminate episodes of N&V and may improve patients’ mood, thus producing a subjective sense of well-being or euphoria (although they also can cause depression and anxiety). In combination with high-dose metoclopramide, steroids may mitigate adverse effects such as the frequency of diarrheal episodes.

Steroids are often given IV before chemotherapy and may or may not be repeated. Dosages and administration schedules are selected empirically. Dexamethasone is often the treatment of choice in treating N&V in patients receiving radiation to the brain, as it also reduces cerebral edema. It is administered orally, IM, or IV in the dose range of 8 mg to 40 mg (pediatric dose: 0.25–0.5 mg/kg).[71–75] Methylprednisolone is also administered orally, IM, or IV at doses and schedules that vary from 40 mg to 500 mg every 6 to 12 hours for up to 20 doses.[70,76]

Dexamethasone is also used orally for delayed N&V. Long-term corticosteroid use, however, is inappropriate and may cause substantial morbidity, including the following:

• Immunosuppression.
• Proximal muscle weakness (especially involving the thighs and upper arms).
• Aseptic necrosis of the long bones.
• Cataract formation.
• Hyperglycemia and exacerbation of preexisting diabetes or escalation of subclinical diabetes to clinical pathology.
• Adrenal suppression with hypocortisolism.
• Lethargy.
• Weight gain.
• GI irritation.
• Insomnia.
• Anxiety.
• Mood changes.
• Psychosis.

A study that examined chemotherapy in a group of patients with ovarian cancer found that short-term use of glucocorticoids as antiemetics had no negative effects on outcomes (e.g., overall survival or efficacy of chemotherapy).[77] As previously shown with metoclopramide, numerous studies have demonstrated that dexamethasone potentiates the antiemetic properties of 5-HT₃-blocking agents.[78–82] If given IV, dexamethasone should be given over 10 to 15 minutes, since rapid administration may cause sensations of generalized warmth, pharyngeal tingling or burning, or acute transient perineal and/or rectal pain.[74,83–85]

Prednisone and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) given concomitantly with other active antiemetic agents have also demonstrated efficacy against N&V caused by cisplatin-containing chemotherapy during the acute phase (within 24 hours after receiving chemotherapy).[86–88] In a double-blind, randomized study of metoclopramide and dexamethasone with or without 1 mg of ACTH, patients receiving ACTH prophylaxis for cisplatin-containing chemotherapy experienced a significantly decreased incidence and severity of delayed emesis for up to 72 hours after treatment.[88]

Cannabis

The plant Cannabis contains more than 60 different types of cannabinoids, or components that have physiologic activity. The most popular, and perhaps the most psychoactive, is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-THC).[89] There are two FDA-approved products for CINV:

• Dronabinol (a synthetic delta-9-THC), as prophylaxis for CINV, 5 mg/m² orally 1 to 3 hours before chemotherapy and every 2 to 4 hours after chemotherapy, for a total of no more than 6 doses per day.
• Nabilone, 1 to 2 mg orally twice a day, for CINV that has failed to respond to other antiemetics.

With respect to CINV, Cannabis products probably target cannabinoid-1 (CB-1) and CB-2 receptors, which are in the central nervous system.[90] Another product, Sativex, a cannabidiol that is a buccal spray, is under investigation.[91,92]

Much of the research on this class of agent was conducted in the late 1970s and 1980s and compared Cannabis to older antiemetic agents that targeted the dopamine receptor, such asprochlorperazine (Compazine) and metoclopramide (Reglan).[89,93–100] This group of studies demonstrated that Cannabis was as effective for moderately emetogenic chemotherapy as dopaminergic antiemetics or was more effective than placebo.[89] Side effects of Cannabis products included euphoria, dizziness, dysphoria, hallucinations, and hypotension.[89] Despite earlier reports of efficacy, in at least one study, patients did not significantly prefer Cannabisagents because of the side effects.[93]

Research in nausea and vomiting since the 1990s has elucidated newer and more physiologic targets, namely 5-HT₃ and NK-1 receptors. Subsequently, 5-HT₃ and NK-1 receptor antagonists have become standard prophylactic therapy for CINV. Studies investigating the role of Cannabiswith these newer agents are few; therefore, limited conclusions can be drawn. In published trials, however, Cannabis has not demonstrated more efficacy than 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists, and synergistic or additive effects have not been fully investigated.[90,101,102]

In summary, the place of Cannabis in today’s arsenal of antiemetics for the prevention and treatment of CINV is not known. Discussions with patients about its use should include responses to available agents, known side effects of Cannabis, and an assessment of the risks versus benefits of this therapy.[103]

For a broader discussion of the issues surrounding Cannabis use, refer to the PDQ summary onCannabis and Cannabinoids.

Benzodiazepines

Benzodiazepines such as lorazepam, midazolam, and alprazolam have become recognized as valuable adjuncts in the prevention and treatment of anxiety and the symptoms of anticipatory nausea and vomiting (ANV) associated with chemotherapy, especially with the highly emetogenic regimens given to children.[104–106] Benzodiazepines have not demonstrated intrinsic antiemetic activity as single agents. Therefore, their place in antiemetic prophylaxis and treatment is adjunctive to other antiemetic agents.[107] Benzodiazepines presumably act on higher CNS structures, the brainstem, and spinal cord, and they produce anxiolytic, sedative, and anterograde amnesic effects. In addition, they markedly decrease the severity of EPRs, especially akathisia, associated with dopaminergic receptor antagonist antiemetics.

Other Pharmacologic Agents

Management of CINV

Current guidelines [131,132] recommend that prechemotherapy management of CINV be based on the emetogenic potential of the chemotherapy agent(s) selected. For patients receiving regimens with high emetogenic potential, the combination of a 5-HT₃ receptor antagonist, aprepitant, anddexamethasone is recommended prechemotherapy; lorazepam may also be used. Aprepitant and dexamethasone are recommended postchemotherapy for the prevention of delayed emesis.

For patients receiving moderately emetogenic chemotherapy, the combination of a 5-HT₃ receptor antagonist and dexamethasone should be used prechemotherapy, with or without lorazepam. Patients receiving the combination of an anthracycline and cyclophosphamide and select patients receiving certain other agents of moderate emetic risk, such as cisplatin (<50 mg/m²) ordoxorubicin, should also receive aprepitant. Postchemotherapy, a 5-HT₃ receptor antagonist, dexamethasone, or both are recommended for the prevention of delayed emesis.

For regimens with low emetogenic potential, dexamethasone is recommended with or withoutlorazepam. For regimens with minimal emetogenic risk, no prophylaxis is recommended.[131,132]

Antiemetic guidelines [131,132] have included the available oral 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists as optional therapy for the prevention of delayed emesis, but the level of evidence supporting this practice is low.[49]

Clinicians and other health care professionals who are involved in administering chemotherapy should be aware that studies have strongly suggested that patients experience more acute and delayed CINV than is perceived by practitioners.[49,133,134] One study suggested that patients who are highly expectant of experiencing nausea appear to experience more postchemotherapy nausea.[135] In addition, the current and new agents have been used as prophylaxis for acute and delayed CINV and have not been studied for use in established CINV.[49,50] One study reported the effective use of IV palonosetron and dexamethasone for the prevention of CINV in patients receiving multiple-day chemotherapy.[136]

Pre- and postchemotherapy recommendations by emetogenic potential are summarized in Table 3.

Current Clinical Trials

Check NCI’s list of cancer clinical trials for U.S. supportive and palliative care trials about nausea and vomiting therapy that are now accepting participants. The list of trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI Web site.

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101. Meiri E, Jhangiani H, Vredenburgh JJ, et al.: Efficacy of dronabinol alone and in combination with ondansetron versus ondansetron alone for delayed chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Curr Med Res Opin 23 (3): 533-43, 2007. [PubMed]
102. Strasser F, Luftner D, Possinger K, et al.: Comparison of orally administered cannabis extract and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in treating patients with cancer-related anorexia-cachexia syndrome: a multicenter, phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial from the Cannabis-In-Cachexia-Study-Group. J Clin Oncol 24 (21): 3394-400, 2006. [PubMed]
103. Coffman KL: The debate about marijuana usage in transplant candidates: recent medical evidence on marijuana health effects. Curr Opin Organ Transplant 13 (2): 189-95, 2008. [PubMed]
104. Kris MG, Gralla RJ, Clark RA, et al.: Consecutive dose-finding trials adding lorazepam to the combination of metoclopramide plus dexamethasone: improved subjective effectiveness over the combination of diphenhydramine plus metoclopramide plus dexamethasone. Cancer Treat Rep 69 (11): 1257-62, 1985. [PubMed]
105. Greenberg DB, Surman OS, Clarke J, et al.: Alprazolam for phobic nausea and vomiting related to cancer chemotherapy. Cancer Treat Rep 71 (5): 549-50, 1987. [PubMed]
106. Hockenberry-Eaton M, Benner A: Patterns of nausea and vomiting in children: nursing assessment and intervention. Oncol Nurs Forum 17 (4): 575-84, 1990 Jul-Aug. [PubMed]
107. Triozzi PL, Goldstein D, Laszlo J: Contributions of benzodiazepines to cancer therapy. Cancer Invest 6 (1): 103-11, 1988. [PubMed]
108. Bishop JF, Olver IN, Wolf MM, et al.: Lorazepam: a randomized, double-blind, crossover study of a new antiemetic in patients receiving cytotoxic chemotherapy and prochlorperazine. J Clin Oncol 2 (6): 691-5, 1984. [PubMed]
109. Henry DW, Burwinkle JW, Klutman NE: Determination of sedative and amnestic doses of lorazepam in children. Clin Pharm 10 (8): 625-9, 1991. [PubMed]
110. van Hoff J, Olszewski D: Lorazepam for the control of chemotherapy-related nausea and vomiting in children. J Pediatr 113 (1 Pt 1): 146-9, 1988. [PubMed]
111. Potanovich LM, Pisters KM, Kris MG, et al.: Midazolam in patients receiving anticancer chemotherapy and antiemetics. J Pain Symptom Manage 8 (8): 519-24, 1993. [PubMed]
112. Olynyk JK, Cullen SR, Leahy MF: Midazolam: an effective antiemetic agent for cytotoxic chemotherapy. Med J Aust 150 (8): 466, 1989. [PubMed]
113. Mori K, Saito Y, Tominaga K: Antiemetic efficacy of alprazolam in the combination of metoclopramide plus methylprednisolone. Double-blind randomized crossover study in patients with cisplatin-induced emesis. Am J Clin Oncol 16 (4): 338-41, 1993. [PubMed]
114. Laszlo J, Clark RA, Hanson DC, et al.: Lorazepam in cancer patients treated with cisplatin: a drug having antiemetic, amnesic, and anxiolytic effects. J Clin Oncol 3 (6): 864-9, 1985. [PubMed]
115. Bymaster FP, Falcone JF, Bauzon D, et al.: Potent antagonism of 5-HT(3) and 5-HT(6) receptors by olanzapine. Eur J Pharmacol 430 (2-3): 341-9, 2001. [PubMed]
116. ZYPREXA (olanzapine): highlights of prescribing information. Indianapolis, Ind: Eli Lilly and Company, 2011. Available online. Last accessed March 28, 2013.
117. Allison DB, Casey DE: Antipsychotic-induced weight gain: a review of the literature. J Clin Psychiatry 62 (Suppl 7): 22-31, 2001. [PubMed]
118. Hale AS: Olanzapine. Br J Hosp Med 58 (9): 442-5, 1997 Nov 5-18. [PubMed]
119. Goldstein LE, Sporn J, Brown S, et al.: New-onset diabetes mellitus and diabetic ketoacidosis associated with olanzapine treatment. Psychosomatics 40 (5): 438-43, 1999 Sep-Oct. [PubMed]
120. Passik SD, Lundberg J, Kirsh KL, et al.: A pilot exploration of the antiemetic activity of olanzapine for the relief of nausea in patients with advanced cancer and pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 23 (6): 526-32, 2002. [PubMed]
121. Jackson WC, Tavernier L: Olanzapine for intractable nausea in palliative care patients. J Palliat Med 6 (2): 251-5, 2003. [PubMed]
122. Passik SD, Kirsh KL, Theobald DE, et al.: A retrospective chart review of the use of olanzapine for the prevention of delayed emesis in cancer patients. J Pain Symptom Manage 25 (5): 485-8, 2003. [PubMed]
123. Pirl WF, Roth AJ: Remission of chemotherapy-induced emesis with concurrent olanzapine treatment: a case report. Psychooncology 9 (1): 84-7, 2000 Jan-Feb. [PubMed]
124. Srivastava M, Brito-Dellan N, Davis MP, et al.: Olanzapine as an antiemetic in refractory nausea and vomiting in advanced cancer. J Pain Symptom Manage 25 (6): 578-82, 2003. [PubMed]
125. Passik SD, Navari RM, Jung SH, et al.: A phase I trial of olanzapine (Zyprexa) for the prevention of delayed emesis in cancer patients: a Hoosier Oncology Group study. Cancer Invest 22 (3): 383-8, 2004. [PubMed]
126. Navari RM, Einhorn LH, Passik SD, et al.: A phase II trial of olanzapine for the prevention of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a Hoosier Oncology Group study. Support Care Cancer 13 (7): 529-34, 2005. [PubMed]
127. Navari RM, Einhorn LH, Loehrer PJ Sr, et al.: A phase II trial of olanzapine, dexamethasone, and palonosetron for the prevention of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a Hoosier oncology group study. Support Care Cancer 15 (11): 1285-91, 2007. [PubMed]
128. Tan L, Liu J, Liu X, et al.: Clinical research of Olanzapine for prevention of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 28: 131, 2009. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
129. Pillai AK, Sharma KK, Gupta YK, et al.: Anti-emetic effect of ginger powder versus placebo as an add-on therapy in children and young adults receiving high emetogenic chemotherapy. Pediatr Blood Cancer 56 (2): 234-8, 2011. [PubMed]
130. Ryan JL, Heckler CE, Roscoe JA, et al.: Ginger (Zingiber officinale) reduces acute chemotherapy-induced nausea: a URCC CCOP study of 576 patients. Support Care Cancer 20 (7): 1479-89, 2012. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
131. National Comprehensive Cancer Network.: NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Antiemesis. Version 1.2013. Fort Washington, Pa: National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2012. Available online. Last accessed March 29, 2013.
132. Kris MG, Hesketh PJ, Somerfield MR, et al.: American Society of Clinical Oncology guideline for antiemetics in oncology: update 2006. J Clin Oncol 24 (18): 2932-47, 2006. [PubMed]
133. Grunberg SM, Deuson RR, Mavros P, et al.: Incidence of chemotherapy-induced nausea and emesis after modern antiemetics. Cancer 100 (10): 2261-8, 2004. [PubMed]
134. Fabi A, Barduagni M, Lauro S, et al.: Is delayed chemotherapy-induced emesis well managed in oncological clinical practice? An observational study. Support Care Cancer 11 (3): 156-61, 2003. [PubMed]
135. Colagiuri B, Roscoe JA, Morrow GR, et al.: How do patient expectancies, quality of life, and postchemotherapy nausea interrelate? Cancer 113 (3): 654-61, 2008. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
136. Einhorn LH, Brames MJ, Dreicer R, et al.: Palonosetron plus dexamethasone for prevention of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting in patients receiving multiple-day cisplatin chemotherapy for germ cell cancer. Support Care Cancer 15 (11): 1293-300, 2007. [PubMed]
137. Navari RM: Overview of the updated antiemetic guidelines for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Community Oncology 4 (4 Suppl 1): 3-11, 2007. Also available online. Last accessed March 28, 2013.

Frequency

Nausea and vomiting (emesis) (N&V) are common symptoms in patients with advanced cancer, occurring in approximately 21% to 68% of these patients.[1,2] The underlying pathophysiology and treatment differs somewhat from nausea related to radiation treatment or chemotherapy. Chronic nausea can significantly impair a patient’s quality of life.

Pathophysiology and Causes

Chronic nausea in the advanced cancer setting is often multifactorial in origin.[1–3] Medications, including some that are frequently prescribed in this setting—such as opioids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants—may be responsible.

In the case of opioids, nausea frequently resolves spontaneously a few days after initiation of treatment. In some cases, however, it may persist. Nausea resulting from the accumulation of active opioid metabolites (morphine-6-glucuronide) has been described,[4] and patients with impaired renal function may be at increased risk. Opioids invariably produce constipation if prophylactic measures are not taken (namely, the use of a regular laxative regimen), and constipation is one of the most common causes of nausea in patients with advanced cancer.[5–8]

Opioid-induced gastrointestinal (GI) motility problems may compound the problem of diminished GI motility that many patients experience as part of the anorexia-cachexia syndrome of advanced cancer. The autonomic dysfunction that often accompanies this syndrome results in decreased GI motility, early satiety, and chronic nausea.[9–11] Other causes of chronic nausea in these patients include the following:[12]

• Raised intracranial pressure (from metastatic brain disease or primary brain tumors).
• Metabolic abnormalities such as hypercalcemia, hyponatremia, and uremia.
• Dehydration.
• Malignant bowel obstruction.
• Gastroduodenal ulcers.
• Infections of the mouth, pharynx, or esophagus.

Nausea, like many other symptoms, may have psychological undercurrents that either exacerbate or induce chronic nausea.

Assessment

A comprehensive history that includes determining the frequency and effectiveness of bowel movements and laxative therapy is essential. Concurrent medications should be reviewed, and the frequency and nature of N&V should be documented. Examination should attempt to exclude bowel obstruction, fecal impaction, dehydration, and raised intracranial pressure. History and physical examination are poor at determining the extent of constipation.[5] A plain flat-plate x-ray of the abdomen can be very useful to this end.[13] Surgical x-ray views of the abdomen may be helpful if a bowel obstruction is suspected. Investigations to determine blood levels of electrolytes, calcium, and renal parameters may also be helpful.

Management

Management centers on identifying the underlying causes, addressing these when possible, and controlling the symptoms.[1,2] A basic working knowledge of the emetic pathways and identification of possible underlying causes should guide antiemetic selection.

Multiple antiemetic regimens have been proposed for the management of chronic nausea in the advanced cancer setting. Prospective studies comparing one regimen with another are lacking.Metoclopramide or domperidone are generally recommended as first-line agents because they improve GI motility and act on the chemoreceptor trigger zone (as a result of their antidopaminergic properties).[14] Metoclopramide can be administered orally or parenterally (subcutaneously or intravenously [IV]) at doses of 10 mg, 4 times a day, or on an every-4-hour basis, depending on the severity of the nausea. Rescue doses should also be ordered on an as-needed basis to manage the episodic worsening of nausea that may occur.

Extrapyramidal-related adverse effects are a potential complication of these medications but appear to occur infrequently. Domperidone, which is currently unavailable in the United States, is associated with fewer of these adverse effects. Unfortunately, this drug is not available in a parenteral formulation. Dimenhydrinate (Dramamine) or antihistamine agents may be used if a complete bowel obstruction is suspected (in which case prokinetic agents are contraindicated) or if patients are intolerant to other antiemetic agents. Haloperidol, a potent antidopamine agent, may be considered if bowel obstruction is the underlying problem.[15]

The phenothiazine drugs are sometimes used,[16][Level of evidence: II] but the high incidence of adverse effects such as somnolence and anticholinergic-related effects (orthostatic hypotension and confusion) limit their role. Chlorpromazine has modest antiemetic activity but a high incidence of sedation, postural hypotension, and anticholinergic adverse effects, while piperazine derivatives such as prochlorperazine are stronger antiemetics but cause more extrapyramidal side effects. Hyoscine butylbromide, on the other hand, can be useful for patients experiencing colic from complete bowel obstruction.

A continuous parenteral infusion of metoclopramide, at doses of 60 to 120 mg/day, may be helpful for patients with intractable chronic nausea.[17] The judicious use of corticosteroids such asdexamethasone in selected patients may be useful in conjunction with a more traditional antiemetic, although one study has suggested that dexamethasone was not better than placebo in patients who were not controlled with metoclopramide.[18][Level of evidence: I] The exact mechanism of action and the optimal dose of corticosteroids for this indication are not known.

In contrast to radiation therapy–induced nausea or chemotherapy-induced nausea, the role of 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists (such as ondansetron) is not clear in the setting of chronic nausea in advanced cancer, but it appears to be limited to a small number of highly selected cases, specifically those that have failed all other treatments.[19]

A case series study has suggested an antiemetic effect for olanzapine (an atypical antipsychotic) in advanced cancer patients being treated with opioids who are complaining of apparent opiate-induced nausea. However, further study and comparison with standard management are required.[20]

The management of constipation can be divided into general interventions and therapeutic measures.[21] The general interventions include the prevention of constipation by initiating regular laxative regimens, particularly in patients on opioid treatment, and where possible, the elimination of medical factors that may be contributing to constipation (e.g., discontinuation of nonessential constipating drugs). Prophylactic laxative regimens may consist of stool softeners such as docusate and bowel stimulants such as sennosides. Occasionally lactulose may be added. If necessary, a hyperosmolar laxative such as lactulose or polyethylene glycol may be added.[22] These regimens should be reviewed on a regular basis and their doses adjusted, depending on the regularity of bowel movements. High-fiber diets, while generally recommended, may be difficult for patients with very advanced cancer. Bulk agents such as psyllium or cellulose are unsuitable for patients with advanced cancer because the high fluid intake required with these agents is often intolerable to patients. (Refer to the PDQ summaries on Gastrointestinal Complications and Painfor more information on the management of constipation caused by opioids.)

Therapeutic interventions for the routine management of constipation may be administered orally or rectally, as follows:

• Oral laxatives, including bulk agents, osmotic agents, contact cathartics, and agents for colonic lavage.
• Saline laxatives, including sodium salts (sodium phosphate) and magnesium salts (magnesium citrate), may be useful to treat established constipation.
• Sodium phosphates are generally administered rectally as an enema, but oral solutions are also available.
• Magnesium citrate is generally administered orally and can be especially useful if the constipation is primarily in the proximal bowel.
• The contact cathartic bisacodyl, available as a suppository, may also be useful for treating established constipation.

Once the constipation is cleared, the background laxative regimen (e.g., sennoside and docusate) should be reviewed with a view to optimizing it. The action of the saline and magnesium salts is not physiological, and regular ongoing administration should be avoided. Saline laxatives should be used with caution in patients with renal impairment or cardiac failure. Mineral oil enemas are used occasionally and act as both lubricants and stool softeners; however, they may interfere with the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, and there is a risk of lipoid pneumonia in debilitated patients. The use of enemas and rectal suppositories is usually limited to the acute short-term management of more severe episodes of constipation. However, patients with neurogenic bowel problems (e.g., patients with irreversible spinal cord compression) often require regular ongoing treatment with suppositories as part of their bowel care. The rectal route is contraindicated in patients with mucosal integrity/bowel-wall compromise. (Refer to the PDQ summary onGastrointestinal Complications for more information.)

There have been no adequate comparative studies between the various laxatives to make evidence-based recommendations on which laxative regimen is optimal. Patients with advanced cancer are at risk of becoming constipated and generally require a regular bowel regimen, even if they are not eating. This need is amplified when they are on opioid treatment. On occasion, patients may present with a refractory narcotic bowel syndrome despite aggressive bowel care.Methylnaltrexone, a quaternary derivative of naltrexone, is an opioid antagonist that does not cross the blood-brain barrier. Preliminary studies suggest that it may be effective when given subcutaneously in the management of opioid-associated constipation without causing opioid withdrawal.[23][Level of evidence: I];[24,25] Methylnaltrexone should be avoided in cases of bowel obstruction and suspected bowel obstruction. This has not been studied in children.

Malignant Bowel Obstruction

The initial approach to assessing and managing malignant bowel obstruction in the advanced cancer patient involves determining whether the obstruction is reversible and whether the obstruction is partial or complete.[26–28] Suitability for surgery such as resection or intestinal bypassing should be assessed. Several medical options are available to improve the comfort of patients with inoperable bowel obstructions.[29,30] Less aggressive surgical procedures such as the insertion of a venting gastrostomy tube can provide considerable relief. When the obstruction is complete and irreversible, the creation of ostomies may also provide relief. Nasogastric tubes may be used temporarily until the obstruction resolves; however, when the obstruction is irreversible, other options such as the insertion of a gastrostomy tube should be considered.

Antiemetic agents with prokinetic properties are relatively contraindicated in the presence of a complete obstruction, and alternative agents such as an antihistamine or haloperidol may be required. Clinical experience suggests that corticosteroids (e.g., dexamethasone at a starting dose of 6–10 mg subcutaneously, 3–4 times a day) may be useful for malignant bowel obstruction.[26,27] The optimal dose and duration of treatment has not been clarified.

Hydration and drugs such as opioids and antiemetics should be administered via routes other than the oral route. The subcutaneous route can be very convenient and effective for both hydration and opioid administration. This route is as effective as IV administration, is less invasive, and requires less maintenance than the IV route. Octreotide, a somatostatin analog, can be useful at doses of 100 µg to 200 µg subcutaneously, 3 times a day, for refractory obstruction.[26,27,31] In the United States, octreotide is often administered as a continuous infusion. If the obstruction causes severe colic, hyoscine butylbromide may be considered. The use of colonic endoluminal stenting devices in selected patients is gaining increasing attention.[32,33]

References

1. Pereira J, Bruera E: Chronic nausea. In: Bruera E, Higginson I, eds.: Cachexia-Anorexia in Cancer Patients. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1996, pp 23-37.
2. Baines MJ: Nausea, vomiting, and intestinal obstruction. In: Fallon M, O’Neill B, eds.: ABC of Palliative Care. London: BMJ Books, 1998, pp 16-18.
3. Stephenson J, Davies A: An assessment of aetiology-based guidelines for the management of nausea and vomiting in patients with advanced cancer. Support Care Cancer 14 (4): 348-53, 2006. [PubMed]
4. Hagen NA, Foley KM, Cerbone DJ, et al.: Chronic nausea and morphine-6-glucuronide. J Pain Symptom Manage 6 (3): 125-8, 1991. [PubMed]
5. Bruera E, Suarez-Almazor M, Velasco A, et al.: The assessment of constipation in terminal cancer patients admitted to a palliative care unit: a retrospective review. J Pain Symptom Manage 9 (8): 515-9, 1994. [PubMed]
6. Derby S, Portenoy RK: Assessment and management of opioid-induced constipation. In: Portenoy RK, Bruera E, eds.: Topics in Palliative Care. Volume 1. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1997, pp 95-112.
7. Culpepper-Morgan JA, Inturrisi CE, Portenoy RK, et al.: Treatment of opioid-induced constipation with oral naloxone: a pilot study. Clin Pharmacol Ther 52 (1): 90-5, 1992. [PubMed]
8. Sykes NP: Oral naloxone in opioid-associated constipation. Lancet 337 (8755): 1475, 1991. [PubMed]
9. Bruera E, Catz Z, Hooper R, et al.: Chronic nausea and anorexia in advanced cancer patients: a possible role for autonomic dysfunction. J Pain Symptom Manage 2 (1): 19-21, 1987 Winter. [PubMed]
10. Thomas JP, Shields R: Associated autonomic dysfunction and carcinoma of the pancreas. Br Med J 4 (726): 32, 1970. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
11. Schuffler MD, Baird HW, Fleming CR, et al.: Intestinal pseudo-obstruction as the presenting manifestation of small-cell carcinoma of the lung. A paraneoplastic neuropathy of the gastrointestinal tract. Ann Intern Med 98 (2): 129-34, 1983. [PubMed]
12. Ripamonti C, Bruera E: Chronic nausea and vomiting. In: Ripamonti C, Bruera E, eds.: Gastrointestinal Symptoms in Advanced Cancer Patients. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp 169-174.
13. Starreveld JS, Pols MA, Van Wijk HJ, et al.: The plain abdominal radiograph in the assessment of constipation. Z Gastroenterol 28 (7): 335-8, 1990. [PubMed]
14. Bruera E, Seifert L, Watanabe S, et al.: Chronic nausea in advanced cancer patients: a retrospective assessment of a metoclopramide-based antiemetic regimen. J Pain Symptom Manage 11 (3): 147-53, 1996. [PubMed]
15. Critchley P, Plach N, Grantham M, et al.: Efficacy of haloperidol in the treatment of nausea and vomiting in the palliative patient: a systematic review. J Pain Symptom Manage 22 (2): 631-4, 2001. [PubMed]
16. Kennett A, Hardy J, Shah S, et al.: An open study of methotrimeprazine in the management of nausea and vomiting in patients with advanced cancer. Support Care Cancer 13 (9): 715-21, 2005. [PubMed]
17. Bruera E, Brenneis C, Michaud M, et al.: Continuous Sc infusion of metoclopramide for treatment of narcotic bowel syndrome. Cancer Treat Rep 71 (11): 1121-2, 1987. [PubMed]
18. Bruera E, Moyano JR, Sala R, et al.: Dexamethasone in addition to metoclopramide for chronic nausea in patients with advanced cancer: a randomized controlled trial. J Pain Symptom Manage 28 (4): 381-8, 2004. [PubMed]
19. Pereira J, Bruera E: Successful management of intractable nausea with ondansetron: a case study. J Palliat Care 12 (2): 47-50, 1996 Summer. [PubMed]
20. Passik SD, Lundberg J, Kirsh KL, et al.: A pilot exploration of the antiemetic activity of olanzapine for the relief of nausea in patients with advanced cancer and pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 23 (6): 526-32, 2002. [PubMed]
21. Mancini I, Bruera E: Constipation in advanced cancer patients. Support Care Cancer 6 (4): 356-64, 1998. [PubMed]
22. Bosshard W, Dreher R, Schnegg JF, et al.: The treatment of chronic constipation in elderly people: an update. Drugs Aging 21 (14): 911-30, 2004. [PubMed]
23. Portenoy RK, Thomas J, Moehl Boatwright ML, et al.: Subcutaneous methylnaltrexone for the treatment of opioid-induced constipation in patients with advanced illness: a double-blind, randomized, parallel group, dose-ranging study. J Pain Symptom Manage 35 (5): 458-68, 2008. [PubMed]
24. Thomas J, Karver S, Cooney GA, et al.: Methylnaltrexone for opioid-induced constipation in advanced illness. N Engl J Med 358 (22): 2332-43, 2008. [PubMed]
25. Foss JF: A review of the potential role of methylnaltrexone in opioid bowel dysfunction. Am J Surg 182 (5A Suppl): 19S-26S, 2001. [PubMed]
26. Mercadante S: Assessment and management of mechanical bowel obstruction. In: Portenoy RK, Bruera E, eds.: Topics in Palliative Care. Volume 1. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 113-30.
27. Fainsinger RL: Integrating medical and surgical treatments in gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and biliary obstruction in patients with cancer. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 10 (1): 173-88, 1996. [PubMed]
28. Ripamonti CI, Easson AM, Gerdes H: Management of malignant bowel obstruction. Eur J Cancer 44 (8): 1105-15, 2008. [PubMed]
29. Davis MP, Nouneh C: Modern management of cancer-related intestinal obstruction. Curr Pain Headache Rep 5 (3): 257-64, 2001. [PubMed]
30. Ripamonti C, Twycross R, Baines M, et al.: Clinical-practice recommendations for the management of bowel obstruction in patients with end-stage cancer. Support Care Cancer 9 (4): 223-33, 2001. [PubMed]
31. Mangili G, Franchi M, Mariani A, et al.: Octreotide in the management of bowel obstruction in terminal ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol 61 (3): 345-8, 1996. [PubMed]
32. Harris GJ, Senagore AJ, Lavery IC, et al.: The management of neoplastic colorectal obstruction with colonic endolumenal stenting devices. Am J Surg 181 (6): 499-506, 2001. [PubMed]
33. Spinelli P, Mancini A: Use of self-expanding metal stents for palliation of rectosigmoid cancer. Gastrointest Endosc 53 (2): 203-6, 2001. [PubMed]

Correlates

Patients receiving radiation to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract or brain have the greatest potential for nausea and vomiting (emesis) (N&V) as side effects. Because cells of the GI tract are dividing quickly, they are quite sensitive to radiation therapy. Radiation to the brain is believed to stimulate the brain’s vomiting center or chemoreceptor trigger zone. Similar to chemotherapy, radiation dose factors also play a role in determining the possible occurrence of N&V. In general, the higher the daily fractional dose and the greater the amount of tissue that is irradiated, the higher the potential for N&V. In addition, the larger the amount of GI tract irradiated (particularly for fields that include the small intestine and stomach), the higher the potential for N&V. Total-body irradiation before bone marrow transplant, for example, has a high probability of inducing N&V as acute side effects.

Prevalence

N&V from radiation may be acute and self-limiting, usually occurring 30 minutes to several hours after treatment. Patients report that symptoms improve on days that they are not being treated. There are also cumulative effects that may occur in patients receiving radiation therapy to the GI tract.[1]

Treatment

Complete control rates with 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists for total-body irradiation vary from 50% to 90%.[2–4] The role of corticosteroids in combination with 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists has not been studied.

References

1. Kris MG, Hesketh PJ, Somerfield MR, et al.: American Society of Clinical Oncology guideline for antiemetics in oncology: update 2006. J Clin Oncol 24 (18): 2932-47, 2006. [PubMed]
2. Spitzer TR, Grunberg SM, Dicato MA: Antiemetic strategies for high-dose chemoradiotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Support Care Cancer 6 (3): 233-6, 1998. [PubMed]
3. Prentice HG, Cunningham S, Gandhi L, et al.: Granisetron in the prevention of irradiation-induced emesis. Bone Marrow Transplant 15 (3): 445-8, 1995. [PubMed]
4. Schwella N, König V, Schwerdtfeger R, et al.: Ondansetron for efficient emesis control during total body irradiation. Bone Marrow Transplant 13 (2): 169-71, 1994. [PubMed]

Purpose of This Summary

This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the pathophysiology and treatment of nausea and vomiting (emesis) (N&V). It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.

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This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ Supportive and Palliative Care Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

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Levels of Evidence

Some of the reference citations in this summary are accompanied by a level-of-evidence designation. These designations are intended to help readers assess the strength of the evidence supporting the use of specific interventions or approaches. The PDQ Supportive and Palliative Care Editorial Board uses a formal evidence ranking system in developing its level-of-evidence designations.

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National Cancer Institute: PDQ® Nausea and Vomiting. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Date last modified <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at:http://cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/supportivecare/nausea/HealthProfessional. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>.

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