Phytocannabinoid Compositions from Cannabis Act Synergistically with PARP1 Inhibitor against Ovarian Cancer Cells In Vitro and Affect the Wnt Signaling Pathway

2.2. Identifying the Active Fractions of the DQ Cannabis Strain

The most active extract, DQ, was fractionated as described in [19]. The activity of the different fractions was tested on HTB75 cells. Four of the 8 fractions (F4, F5, F6 and F7) showed significant cytotoxic activity at the examined concentrations. F5 and F7 were the most active, with the highest examined concentration (20 µg/mL) resulting in ~80% cell death (Figure 2a). F6 and F4 were less active, with the highest examined concentration (20 µg/mL) resulting in ~60% and ~40% cell death, respectively (Figure 2a). Treatments with F1–F3 and F8 showed no cytotoxic activity against HTB75 cells (Figure 2a).

The IC50 values of the most active fractions in HTB75 were determined to be 18.90 and 17.17 µg/mL for F5 and F7 at 24 h, respectively, 18.36 and 16.95 µg/mL for F5 and F7 at 48 h, respectively, and 14.31 and 13.07 µg/mL for F5 and F7 at 72 h, respectively (Figure 2b,c).

Cytotoxicity for F5 and F7 was examined in another OC cell line, HTB161. The IC50 values for F5 and F7 were 37.87 and 30.46 µg/mL for F5 and F7 at 24 h, respectively, 26.26 and 24.46 µg/mL for F5 and F7 at 48 h, respectively, and 25.34 and 17.66 µg/mL for F5 and F7 at 72 h, respectively (Figure 2d,e). In HTB76, IC50 values at 48 h were 29.12 and 23.79 µg/mL for F5 and F7, respectively (Supplementary Figure S1).

The F5 and F7 phytocannabinoid composition is described in [19]. F5 contained mainly THC and cannabinol (CBN) and CBG to a lesser extent, while F7 included mainly THC and cannabichromene (CBC), with smaller proportions of CBN and CBG, as well as traces of other phytocannabinoids [19]. The terpene composition of F5 is reported in [19]; the terpene composition of F7 analyzed by GC/MS is reported in Supplementary Table S1.

2.3. Determining the Activity of the Phytocannabinoid F5 and F7 Standard Mixes

In order to confirm the active compositions of F5 and F7, standard mixes (SM) of phytocannabinoid standards were formulated as closely as possible to the original fraction compositions. On HTB75 cells, F5-SM had an IC50 of 14.67 µg/mL (Figure 3a), which was lower than that of F5 (18.36 µg/mL; Figure 2b). F7-SM showed an IC50 value of 13.56 µg/mL (Figure 3b), again lower than that of F7 (16.95 µg/mL; Figure 2c). On HTB161 cells F5-SM had an IC50 of 25.11 µg/mL (Figure 3c), which was lower than that of F5 (26.26 µg/mL; Figure 2d). F7-SM showed an IC50 value of 25.09 µg/mL (Figure 3d), higher than that of F7 (24.46 µg/mL; Figure 2e). IC50 values for HTB76 were 20.38 and 20.66 µg/mL for F5-SM and F7-SM, respectively (Supplementary Figure S1). All IC50 values are summarized in Supplementary Table S2.

2.4. Determining the Most Effective Combinations of Phytocannabinoids

To determine the most effective combinations of the main phytocannabinoids [8] in F5 and F7, combinations of THC, CBG, CBC and CBN standards were examined on HTB75 cells at ratios found in F5 or F7, at a fixed total concentration, in comparison to THC (Figure 4). At concentrations of 13 and 15 µg/mL (Figure 4a,b, respectively), THC alone was less effective than some of the various combinations of THC, CBC, CBG and CBN at ratios found in F5 or F7 (Figure 4). The most effective combinations at both 13 and 15 µg/mL were those of THC+CBC and THC+CBC+CBG at ratios found in F7 (ratios of 7.5:2.5 and 7.4:2.5:0.1, respectively; Figure 4). For the F5 combination-ratio, THC+CBG was the most effective treatment, but was not significantly different from the other F5-based combinations (Figure 4).

2.5. Determining the Effects of Treatment on Cell Apoptosis

Treatment of HTB75 cells with F5 and F7 for 48 h led to 83.3% and 88.0% cell apoptosis, respectively, in comparison to 17.3% apoptosis in the vehicle control. Treatment with the phytocannabinoid standard mixes, F5-SM and F7-SM, led to similarly high levels of cell apoptosis: 93.9% and 85.0%, respectively (Figure 5a). The chemotherapy drug niraparib led to 64.1% apoptotic cells (Figure 5a). Only low levels of necrosis were recorded with the cannabis treatments, similar to the control (Figure 5a). The non-treated control demonstrated apoptosis values similar to the vehicle control (e.g., 78.6 and 78.0% live cells, 17.6 and 17.1% apoptosis and 3.8 and 4.9% necrosis in the non-treated and vehicle control, respectively). Similar results, suggesting significant induction of apoptosis, were evident for HTB161 treatments (Figure 5b). However, in this cell line the niraparib only treatment was the most effective in induction of apoptosis and there was an increased proportion of live cells in comparison to HTB75 and some increase in cell necrosis, mainly with F5, F5-SM and F7-SM treatments (Figure 5b).

2.6. Determining the Synergistic Effects of CB1 and CB2 Receptor Inverse Agonists, a TRPA1 Receptor Blocker, and TRPV1 or TRPV2 Receptor Antagonists on Cytotoxic Activity

We determined the effect of adding CB1 or CB2 inverse agonists (IA), TRPV1 or TRPV2 antagonists (AN) or a TRPA1 blocker (B) on F5, F7, F5-SM and F7-SM activity. HTB75 cells were treated with F5, F7, F5-SM or F7-SM with or without IA, AN or B. In the presence of CB2 IA, the cytotoxic effect of F5, F7, F5-SM or F7-SM was significantly reduced (87.7, 62.7, 77.1, 57.1%, viable cells respectively, vs. 38.5, 19.3, 29.6, 26.3% viable cells without CB2 IA); Figure 6a–d). Furthermore, TRPV2 AN co-treatment with F7 and F7-SM interfered, to some extent, with their activities (significantly with F7; Figure 6b,d). Cell viability percentages for treatments with F7 or F7-SM were 48.9 or 39.2% with TRPV2 AN vs. 19.3 or 26.3% without, respectively (Figure 6b,d). Treatments with F5, F5-SM, F7 or F7-SM in the presence of TRPV1 AN, TRPA1 B or CB1 IA, did not significantly reduce the cytotoxicity of the treatments (Figure 6a–d). Treatment with TRPV1 AN even increased the cytotoxicity of F5-SM (Figure 6c). When applied without cannabis fractions or compounds, none of the inverse agonists, blockers, or agonists affected HTB75 cell viability (Figure 6e). Similar results for the CB2 receptor were obtained also for the HTB161 cells: CB2 IA substantially reduced F7 activity (Supplementary Figure S2). However, unlike the results for HTB75, CB1 IA, TRPA1 B, TRPV1 AN, and TRPV2 AN significantly increased the activity of F7 (Supplementary Figure S2a). When applied alone to HTB161 cells, CB2 IA reduced cell viability, to some extent, whereas TRPV1 AN increased it (Supplementary Figure S2b).

The expression of the CB2 and TRPV2 receptors in HTB75 cells was not significantly changed by treatment with F5 or F7 (Table 1).

2.7. Determining the Effects of Combined Treatments of Cannabis Fractions or Compounds with Chemotherapy Drugs

Chemotherapy drugs were examined for combined activity with F5, F7, F5-SM and F7-SM. Considerable and significant synergy (on a scale of 0 [no synergy] to 1 [high synergy]) was obtained for combinations of niraparib with F5 on HTB75 cells (with peaks of 0.6–0.8 and significant synergy at 15 or 17.5 µg/mL F5 and 6–8 µg/mL niraparib; Figure 7a; Supplementary Table S4). Considerable and significant synergy was obtained also with combinations of niraparib and F7 (with peaks of 0.4–0.6, respectively, and significant synergy of 15 or 17.5 µg/mL F7 and 3–8 µg/mL niraparib; Figure 7a; Supplementary Table S4). Synergy with F5-SM or F7-SM, on the other hand, was restricted to 0.2–0.4 only (Figure 7a; Supplementary Table S4). Synergistic interaction between F7 and niraparib was evident on the HTB161 cell line as well, with peaks of 0.4–0.6; significant synergy was evident at 17.5 or 20 µg/mL F7 and 25 µg/mL niraparib (Figure 7f; Supplementary Table S5). With F5, however, only low synergy was evident in co-treatments with niraparib (Figure 7e; Supplementary Table S5).

Gemcitabine showed low levels of synergy with the plant fractions (peaks of 0–0.2), and, in some cases, inhibited activity in the HTB75 cells (e.g., for 12.5 µg/mL F5 or F7 and 5–100 ng/mL gemcitabine; Supplementary Figure S3; Supplementary Table S6). Synergy was evident only with treatment of gemcitabine and F5-SM (a single peak of 0.2–0.4 at 10 µg/mL of F5-SM and 2.5 ng/mL of gemcitabine; Supplementary Figure S3 and Table S6).

2.8. Determining the Effects of Treatment on Normal Cells

The cytotoxic activity of the synergistic mixture of niraparib+F5 and niraparib+F7 was assessed on normal cells using the keratinocyte (HaCaT) cell line. The synergistic ratio of mixture of niraparib:fraction (~3.5:6.5, derived from 8 µg/mL niraparib + 15 µg/mL F5 or F7; Figure 7a) was examined at several different concentrations; activity was examined in parallel on HaCaT and HTB75 cells at complete confluence (Figure 8). Some minor cell proliferation was apparent in HaCaT, but not in HTB75 cells, under treatments with low concentrations (Figure 8). At cytotoxic concentrations of the niraparib+F5 or niraparib+F7 mixtures (i.e., 8.7 µg/mL niraparib + 16.3 µg/mL F5 or F7 and 10.4 µg/mL niraparib + 19.6 µg/mL F5 or F7) considerably higher cytotoxicity was apparent against the cancer cells than against normal cells. In the most effective combined treatments of niraparib+F5 or niraparib+F7 (10.4 µg/mL niraparib + 19.6 µg/mL F5 or F7) this activity was ~50-fold higher on HTB75 than on HaCaT cells (Figure 8).

2.9. Determining the Effects of Treatment on Wnt Pathway-Related Gene Expression

Gene expression of members of the FZD receptors, DKK or Wnt gene families were examined at 6 h after treatment (as described in [20]). In HTB75, treatments with F7 or niraparib and niraparib+F7 reduced FZD4 and FZD1 expression (Figure 9a,b). Similarly, in HTB161, the expression of FZD4 and FZD1 was significantly downregulated by all examined treatments, and mainly by niraparib+F7 (Figure 9f,g).

In HTB75, DKK1 expression was significantly reduced by the F7 and the combined niraparib+F7 treatments (Figure 9c). DKK1 expression was induced in HTB161 by the F7 treatment (Figure 9h). Expression of Wnt5A was reduced by the F7 and niraparib+F7 treatments in HTB75 (Figure 9d) but was increased by the F7 treatment in HTB161 (Figure 9i). Expression of Wnt10B was reduced in HTB75, especially by the F7 and combined treatment (Figure 9e), and was unchanged to control in HTB161 (Figure 9j).

RAD51 expression was examined at 6 h and again at 9 h post-treatment, the latter time since its expression was downstream and dependent on Wnt/β-catenin signaling activity [16]. In HTB161 RAD51 expression was significantly reduced at 6 and 9 h by all treatments (Table 2). However, its expression was not significantly altered in HTB75 at the examined time points (Table 2).

Co-treatment of HTB75 or HTB161 cells with F7 and CB2 IA diminished the repression F7 treatment had on FZD gene expression (Figure 10).

2.10. Determining the Effects of Treatment on Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Phenotype

We determined the effects of niraparib, F7 and niraparib+F7 treatments on the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) phenotype. Examination of EMT was based on Dishevelled2 (DVL2) gene expression and cellular localization of β-catenin in HTB75 and HTB161 cells. Treatments with F7 and niraparib+F7 substantially reduced DVL2 expression in both cell lines (Figure 11a,b), whereas niraparib only treatment reduced DVL2 expression in HTB161 and increased it in HTB75 (Figure 11a,b). In non-induced HTB161 cells epithelial characteristics of, e.g., smaller cells that formed a tight monolayer, were evident (Figure 11c). In these non-induced cells, β-catenin was distributed in the cell membrane in thickened cell contacts (Figure 11c, white arrows). In contrast, in HTB161 cells induced for mesenchymal phenotype [21] bigger cells that were detached from each other, a loose monolayer and large spaces between cells were observed (Figure 11d, yellow arrows). In these induced cells, β-catenin was mostly absent from cell membrane (Figure 11d). Treatment with niraparib substantially increased the epithelial phenotype and membrane distribution of β-catenin in the induced cell population (Figure 11e), whereas treatment with F7 did that to a much lesser extent (Figure 11f). The combined niraparib+F7 treatment resulted in a marked increase in the epithelial phenotype and membrane distribution of β-catenin in the induced cell population (Figure 11g).

In the HTB75 cell line, in contrast to epithelial features and β-catenin membrane localization of non-induced cells (Figure 11h), mesenchymal features and a reduced level of β-catenin in the cell membrane were observed in the induced cell population (Figure 11i). Epithelial features and β-catenin membrane localization were re-established, to some extent, mainly with niraparib treatment of the induced cell population (Figure 11j), and, to a lesser extent, with F7 (Figure 11k) and the combined treatment (Figure 11l).

4.2. Extract Fractionation

Extract fractionation was done, as described previously [19,20]. Briefly, a flash chromatography apparatus (Flash Pure, Buchi, C-810), equipped with a diode array detector, was used to fractionate the decarboxylated crude extract. An Ecoflex C-18 80 g, 50 µm spherical, maximum pressure 180 psi, column was used for separation, with 80–85% methanol in water as the mobile phase. The flow rate was 30 mL/min. The organic solvent (methanol) of each fraction was separately removed by using a rotary vacuum evaporator at 30 °C. The remaining aqueous phase, containing the compound of interest, was lyophilized to obtain a dried powder. Each dried fraction tube was weighed separately and reconstituted with methanol to produce a 1 or 2 mg/mL solution; for IC50 experiments, a 5 mg/mL solution was used. All solutions were stored at −20 °C.

4.3. Chemical Analysis

Chemical analysis was done, as described previously [19,20]. Briefly, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC, 1260 Infinity II, Agilent), equipped with a Raptor ARC-18 for LC-UV column (150 mm × 4.6 mm ID, pore size 2.7 µm), was used for chemical analysis. A gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC/MS; GC8860-MS5977B Agilent), equipped with a 30 m, 0.25 mm ID, 5% cross-linked phenylmethyl siloxane capillary column (HP-5MS) with 0.25-μm film thickness, was used for chemical analysis, as described in [20]. An amount of 10 μL of each sample fraction was transferred into GC vials with an insert, dried under a gentle stream of nitrogen and dissolved in 100 μL of hexane. Sample volume for injection was 1 μL. Helium was used as the carrier gas at a constant flow of 1.1 mL s⁻¹. An isothermal hold at 50 °C was maintained for 2 min, followed by a heating gradient of 6 °C min⁻¹ to 300 °C, with the final temperature held for 4 min. Peaks were assigned using spectral libraries (NIST 14.0 and 17.0) and compared with MS data obtained from the injection of standards purchased from LGC Standards.

4.4. Standard/Material Preparation and Use

Standard/Material preparation and use was done, as described previously [19,20]. Briefly, the cannabinoid standards at a concentration of 1 mg/mL in methanol used in this study included THC (34067; Restek, Bellefonte, PA, USA), CBC (34092; Restek), CBG (34091; Restek) and CBN (34010; Restek). Inverse agonists (IA) to CB1 and CB2 were AM251 (ab120088; Abcam, Cambridge, UK) and SR144528 (ab146185; Abcam), respectively. The TRPA1 blocker used was HC-030031 (ab120554; Abcam). TRPV1 and TRPV2 antagonists were ab141772 (Abcam) and Tranilast 1098/10 (Abcam), respectively. All IAs, the blocker and antagonists were dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) at a concentration of 10 mM and used for cell treatment at a final concentration of 10 µM. Chemotherapy solutions for synergy tests included niraparib (AG0038ZU; Angene, Nanjing, China) and gemcitabine (461060010; Acros Organics, Beijing, China) both dissolved in DMSO. Solutions for induction of malignant features [21] included IL-1β (200-01B; PeproTech, Cranbury, NJ, USA) and TNFα (300-01A; PeproTech) both dissolved in pure water. Solvents (methanol and/or DMSO) were used as a negative control and niraparib was used as a positive control in all the biological assays. The control in any given experiment was set at a concentration to match the vehicle concentration in the highest concentration treatment.

4.5. Cell Culture

OC cell lines; HTB75 (ATCC, CAOV-3; Adenocarcinoma), HTB161 (ATCC, OVCAR-3; Adenocarcinoma) and HTB76 (ATCC, CAOV-4; Adenocarcinoma) cell lines were cultured in Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) (01-055-1A; Biological Industries, Beit HaEmek, Israel) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) (04-127-1A; Biological Industries), RPMI medium (01-100-1A; Biological Industries), supplemented with 20% FBS, and Leibovitz’s L-15 Medium (01-115-1A; Biological Industries) supplemented with 20% FBS respectively. HaCaT (Keratinocytes, CLS Cell Lines Service GmbH, Eppelheim, Germany; [21]) skin cells were cultured in DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS. All media were supplemented with 1% Pen-Strep, 1% L-Glutamine and 0.02% plasmocin. Cells were incubated at 37 °C in a humidified atmosphere; HTB75, HTB161 and HaCaT were grown in an environment containing 5% CO₂ and 95% air, while HTB76 cells were grown in air. Induction of the mesenchymal phenotype was done as described in [21], with modifications: HTB75 and HTB161 were seeded in complete medium 3 days prior to induction. Induction conditions for HTB161 were RPMI medium, including FBS 5% and IL-1β 30 ng/mL, and for HTB75 DMEM medium, including FBS 1%, IL-1β 30 ng/mL and TNFα 100 ng/mL for 48 h. Treatments were applied for 16 h, while maintaining induction conditions.

4.6. Isolation of OC Cells from Patient MK

Samples of proliferating cells containing approximately 3M cells were received from the Ridley-Tree Cancer Center (Santa Barbara, CA, USA)/SEngine (Seattle, WA, USA), Sample ID SE0538, CLIA Number: 50D2106197, Quorum Review Institutional Review Board approved 19 June 2018, WA State Medical Test: MTSC.FS.60622201. Cells originated in a single cancerous deep femoral lymph node, removed via surgical resection from OC patient, MK, by a gynecological oncology surgeon, approximately five years after her primary diagnosis. The cells were cultured for personalized diagnosis by SEngine Precision Medicine [38,39]. Cells were propagated using DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS, 1% Pen-Strep, 1% L-Glutamine and 0.02% plasmocin.

New generation sequencing (NGS) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) profiling and analysis was carried out on the cancerous lymph node tissue by Foundation Medicine, Inc. (Cambridge, MA, USA), using their FoundationOne CDx protocol, targeting 324 cancer-related genes. In this analysis cells showed mutant TP53 C135Y and STK11 splice site 735-1G>C, but all other genes tested (including BRCA1 and BRCA2) lacked cancer-associated mutations. A clinical IHC indicated that cancer was strongly positive for PAX8 and WT1. The patient signed the informed consent agreeing to the use of tissue samples for research purposes.

4.7. Cell Viability Assay

The cell viability assay was done as described previously [19,25]. Briefly, cells were seeded into 96-well plates at a density of 1 × 10⁴ per well (in 50 µL/well) in complete medium and incubated at 37 °C overnight to allow attachment. The following day, cells were treated in triplicate with plant extracts, fractions, or cannabinoid standards at a volume of 50 µL/well at different concentrations, as described in each experiment. In experiments where CB1 or CB2 inverse agonists (AM251 and SR144528, respectively), TRPV1 or TRPV2 antagonists (SB-366791 and Tranilast, respectively), or the TRPA1 blocker (HC-030031) were used, they were added along with the treatment at concentration of 10 µM. Treated cells were incubated for 24, 48 or 72 h at 37 °C. Subsequently, XTT reagents (2,3,-bis(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-5-[(phenylamino)-carbonyl]-2H-tetrazolium inner salt) (20-300-1000, Biological Industries, Israel) were added to the cells for 2 h at 37 °C in a humidified 5% CO₂–95% air atmosphere. Absorbance was recorded using a Synergy H1 hybrid reader photometer (BioTek) at 490 nm with a 650 nm reference wavelength. Cell viability was estimated using the equation:%Cell Viability=100×((A490−A650) of treatment÷(A490−A650) of solvent control). A490 and A650 were the absorbencies of the XTT colorimetric reaction. Absorbance of the media alone (blank) was subtracted from the readings. For dose response assay, GraphPad Prism version 6.1 (https://www.graphpad.com/scientific-software/prism/ (accessed on 28 October 2021), GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA, USA) was employed to produce dose-response curves (data points were connected by non-linear regression lines of the sigmoidal dose-response inhibition curve relation) and determination of IC50 values. For assay of full confluence, cells were seeded in 96-well plates at a density of 1 × 10⁴ per well (at 100 µL/well) in complete medium and were incubated at 37 °C for 5 days to allow 100% confluence.

4.8. Flow Cytometry Analysis

Flow cytometry analysis was done, as described previously [19,25]. For the apoptosis assay 5 × 10⁵ HTB75 or HTB161 cells were seeded in 2 mL medium per well, 24 h before treatment in 6-well TC plates. The treatment period was 48 h, and cells were harvested after applying 250 μL trypsin for 5 min, adding a complete medium to neutralize the trypsin, and centrifuging for 5 min at 1600 rpm. Cell pellets were resuspended and washed twice with 1 mL of phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Cells were assessed using an MEBCYTO Apoptosis Kit with Annexin V-FITC and PI (4700; MBL, Woods Hole, MA, USA). Staining was carried out according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The cells in each sample were resuspended in 85 μL of Annexin binding buffer. Cells were stained with 10 μL of Annexin V- FITC solution and 5 μL of propidium iodide (PI) working solution, followed by incubation in the dark at room temperature for 15 min. Next, 400 μL of Annexin V binding buffer was added to each tube. Rates of apoptosis were analyzed with flow cytometry, LSR-FORTESSA (BD, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA). Cells were considered apoptotic if they were Annexin V+/PI− (early apoptosis) or Annexin V+/PI+ (late apoptosis). Live cells were defined as Annexin V−/PI−, and Annexin V−/PI+ as necrotic.

4.9. Staining and Confocal Microscopy

Cells (1 × 10⁴ cells/plate) were seeded in a 35 mm glass bottom cell culture dish in 500 µL complete medium and incubated at 37 °C. Three days later, cells were induced for stress with IL-1β for HTB161 and with IL-1β+TNFα for HTB75. Treatments were given after 48 h of induction, for 16 h at sub-lethal concentrations. For fixation and permeabilization of cells, Transcription Factor Staining Buffer Set (130-122-981; Miltenyi Biotech, Bergisch Gladbach, Germany) was used, and cells were incubated for 30 min at 4–8 °C. For staining, β-Catenin monoclonal antibody (130-121-990-PE; REAfinity™ Miltenyi Biotech, Germany) was used, and cells were incubated for 40 min at 4–8 °C. Hoechst (EasyProbes™ 33342; ABP Bioscience, Beltsville, MD, USA) was used for nuclear staining. Cell microscopy and image acquisition was carried out using a Leica SP8 laser scanning microscope (Leica, Wetzlar, Germany), equipped with 405 and 552 nm solid state lasers, HC PL APO CS 63×/1.2 water immersion objectives (Leica, Wetzlar, Germany) and Leica Application Suite X software (LASX, Leica, Wetzlar, Germany). Hoechst, 5(6)-Carboxyfluorescein and PE (red)emission signals were detected with PMT and HyD (hybrid) detectors in ranges of 415–490 nm, and 565–660 nm, respectively.

4.10. Analysis of Combined Drug Effects

Drug synergy was determined from XTT results by the Bliss independence drug interaction model, as described in [20,25], on HTB75 and HTB161 cells, defined by the following equation: Exy = Ex + Ey – (ExEy), where (Exy) is the additive effect of the drugs x and y as predicted by their individual effects (Ex and Ey). The synergy expressed by the delta of EXy and Ex or Ey and the values differed on a scale between 0 (no synergy) to 1 (high synergy). Negative values denoted an inverse effect.

4.11. Quantitative Real-Time PCR

Determination of gene expression was done, as described previously [19,25]. Cells were seeded in a 6-well plate at a concentration of 1.5 × 10⁶ cells in 3 mL medium per well. After 24 h incubation, cells were treated with cannabis compounds and/or chemotherapy drugs for 3, 6 or 9 h. Cells were harvested, and RNA was extracted using TRI reagent (Merck). RNA was reverse-transcribed in a total volume of 20 μL (PB30.11-10; qPCRBIO, PA, USA) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. PCR was performed in triplicate using a qPCR SyGreen Blue Mix (PB20.16-20; qPCRBIO) and StepOne Plus system (Applied Biosystems Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The expression of each target gene was normalized to the expression of HPRT mRNA following the 2^−ΔΔCt method presenting the differences (∆) in threshold cycle (Ct) between the target gene and HPRT gene, using the following equation: ΔΔCt= ΔCt treatment−ΔCt control. Experiments were repeated three times. The primers included were those for CB2 (CNR2, Gene ID: 1269) (forward) 5′-ATCATGTGGGTCCTCTCAGC-3′ and (reverse) 5′-GATTCCGGAAAAGAGGAAGG-3′; TRPV2 (Gene ID: 51393) (forward) 5′-TGCTCACCTACATCCTGCTG-3′ and (reverse) 5′-GCACCACCAATAGCCATTCT-3′; FZD1 (Gene ID: 8321) (forward) 5′-GTGAGCCGACCAAGGTGTAT-3′ and (reverse) 5′-AGCCGGACAAGAAGATGATG-3′; FZD4 (Gene ID: 8322) (forward) 5′-CCTGGCCAGAGAGTCTGAAC-3′ and (reverse) 5′-TTGGTTCCCACAGAGTGACA-3′; DKK1 (Gene ID: 22943) (forward) 5′-CATCAGACTGTGCCTCAGGA-3′ and (reverse) 5′-CCACAGTAACAACGCTGGAA-3′; Wnt5A (Gene ID: 7474) (forward) 5′-CAAGGGCTCCTACGAGAGTG-3′ and (reverse) 5′-CTTCTCCTTCAGGGCATCAC-3′; Wnt10B (Gene ID: 7480) (forward) 5′-CTGGTGCTGCTATGTGCTGT-3′ and (reverse) 5′-ATCAGAGCAAAGGGCTGAAA-3′; RAD51 (Gene ID: 5888) (forward) 5′-TCACGGTTAGAGCAGTGTGG-3′ and (reverse) 5′-GTGGTGAAACCCATTGGAAC-3′; DVL2 (Gene ID: 1856) (forward) 5′-CATGAGCAACGATGACGCTG-3′ and (reverse) 5′-AGGGTCAATTGGCTGGATGG.

We thank Einav Mayzlish Gati and Ofer Cohen for providing the IGB strains, Bruce Kendall for fruitful discussion and critical comments and Zach Dunseth for English editing.